Taxonomy of Nonhuman Primates Used in Biomedical Enquiry

David Glenn Smith , in Nonhuman Primates in Biomedical Research (2d Edition), Book 1, 2012

Baboons

Baboons are among the largest of the Erstwhile World monkeys. Excepting humans and the great apes, the baboons are exceeded in size only past the mandrill and the drill, which were one time, only no longer, included inside the genus Papio. The big size of baboons suits them for use in sure experiments requiring surgical procedures (Nyachieo et al., 2007). They exhibit fewer aggressive behaviors than rhesus and, different rhesus, are only moderately susceptible to tuberculosis.

They take sharply sloping, domestic dog-like muzzles, relatively short tails, exhibit marked sexual dimorphisms, and live in highly socially structured groups. The birdie taxa are differentiated by color and size. P. papio is the smallest of the baboons while P. ursinus is the largest. P. ursinus accept dark brown-gray hair. P. papio, P. cynocephalus, and P. anubis become their mutual names (red, yellow, and olive baboons) from their ruby-red-brown, yellowish-brown, and olive colored pelage, respectively.

The earliest taxonomies of genus Papio were based on morphology and behavior and were non consistent with those based on subsequent genetic studies. The unusual beliefs (e.yard. harem social structure) of P. hamdryas led information technology to be taxonomically distinguished from the other taxa, but molecular studies take led to revisions of this view and to the consideration of the 5 major varieties as dissimilar species (Groves, 2005; Zinner et al., 2009). This underscores that phylogenetic relationships should be reconstructed from the greatest possible diverseness of biological testify.

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The Taxonomy of Primates in the Laboratory Context

Groves Colin , in The Laboratory Primate, 2005

Papio

Baboons have long been favoured research subjects. Studies on reproductive biology, in 1 species of baboon ( Birrell et al., 1996), take been facilitated by housing them in their natural social groups, minimizing undue stress and thus enabling apparently normal processes of pregnancy, including hormonal levels, to be continuously monitored, as briefly described past Horam et al. (1992). Baboons are widely used for these and other research areas in the laboratory. The potential drawback is their big size, requiring large cages, preferably with outdoor runs, if they are to be kept under humane conditions. They are strikingly intelligent compared to Platyrrhines, and even to Vervets, and, for full behavioural enrichment, they require social interaction and intellectual stimulation. This includes having their food scattered, and then that they have to forage for information technology, rather than but collecting it from a tray. There are five species of baboon:

Papio hamadryas, the Hamadryas, Mantled or Sacred Baboon. This comes from arid environments around the Reddish Sea in northeast Africa and Arabia. The male is greyness with a huge mane and white cheek whiskers, red confront and rump skin. The female is browner and maneless with a blackness face.

Papio papio, the Guinea Baboon, is from far western Africa. It is red, with a large mane in the male person.

Papio anubis, the Anubis or Olive Baboon, is from Mali east to Ethiopia and Republic of kenya. It is much larger than Hamadryas and Republic of guinea Baboons and is olive chocolate-brown, with a mane in adult male.

Papio cynocephalus, the Yellow Birdie, is from Tanzania south to the Zambezi. It is yellowish with white underparts and white cheeks and no mane.

Papio ursinus, the Chacma Baboon, comes from southern Africa (south of the Zambezi). It is as large every bit the Anubis or larger and is blackness in the far south, becoming fawn to the north with no mane.

The Anubis, Yellow and Chacma Baboons ("savannah baboons") alive in multimale, multifemale troops with dominance hierarchies. The Hamadryas lives in harems, the surplus males associating in bachelor groups, and a number of harems and bachelor groups come together to form large bands. The basic behavioural difference is that hamadryas males herd females, and this has striking consequences for the social arrangement also as the temperament of both sexes. Guinea Baboons are poorly studied but may be more like hamadryas.

This may not exhaust the biological differences betwixt birdie taxa. Information technology has been reported that the Cape of Good Hope baboons, which are P.ursinus, mate in a mount series, with ejaculation manifestly occurring only at the end of the series. In contrast, those in Nairobi National Park (P.anubis), typically ejaculate after a unmarried mount (Hall and DeVore, 1965) but these xl-year-old observations demand to exist confirmed and extended.

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HERPESVIRUSES – Baboon AND CHIMPANZEE (HERPESVIRIDAE)

Southward.South. Kalter , R.L. Heberling , in Encyclopedia of Virology (Second Edition), 1999

Epidemiology

Herpesvirus papio was kickoff isolated from a group of hamadryas baboons, previously inoculated with human leukemic blood, in the colony of the Institute of Experimental Pathology and Therapy, Sukhumi. Since 1967, more than 300 cases of lymphoma take been recognized in the main baboon colony. A separate baboon colony in a wood reserve some altitude from the main colony has not shown whatever prove of lymphoid disease, but the animals do incorporate herpesvirus papio VCA antibody. A C-type virus (simian T-cell leukemia virus, STLV-1?) along with a high incidence of STLV-1 antibody has as well been observed in the Sukhumi baboons with lymphomas. It is not clear what the relationship between the presence of herpesvirus papio and C-blazon retroviruses (STLV-1) and leukemia is in these animals.

Serological surveys of the master baboon colony have shown an age-related increment in the prevalence of antibodies to herpesvirus papio and STLV-1. Herpesvirus papio is released into the surroundings by way of nasopharyngeal mucosa and lacrimal gland secretions, which appears to exist the main road of horizontal transmission. The exact machinery of STLV-i transmission in the birdie is non clear, merely evidently parallels that of infection with other retroviruses, i.e. a result of grooming, fighting, biting, sexual activity. The leukemic blood used to inoculate the baboons may also be the source of this virus. STLV-1, which is closely related antigenically to human HTLV-1, is not to be confused with the vertically transmitted endogenous type C retroviruses present in primates.

The outset isolation of herpesvirus pan was a serendipitous finding. Herpesvirus pan was isolated by cultivating chimpanzee leukocytes obtained from uninoculated chimpanzees likewise as from chimpanzees previously inoculated with human derived prison cell lines containing herpes-type particles. Other isolates were obtained from oral secretions of immunosuppressed chimpanzees. Although no definitive data exist relative to the mechanism of viral transfer, it is highly probable that herpesvirus pan is spread via oral secretions or sexual intercourse.

EBV antibody is frequently observed in nonhuman primate sera, reflecting primary infection or crossreactions of the ethnic EBV-like viruses present in unlike seropositive species. CMV infection probably parallels that of EBV.

SA8/HVP-2 infection needs boosted study, although recent data suggest that the baboon infections were due to HVP-2. Well-nigh HVP-2 lesions in the baboons were venereal, implying that the epidemiology is sexual. The few chimpanzee herpes simplex infections are apparently of human origin.

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Mutual Viral Infections of Laboratory Primates

Lerche Nicholas Due west. , in The Laboratory Primate, 2005

Simian Agent eight

Herpesvirus papio type two (HVP-two) in baboons (Papio spp.) and Simian Amanuensis viii (SA8) in African dark-green monkeys (Chlorocebus aethiops) share genetic relatedness and like biology with B virus, including the establishment of latency in sensory ganglia. Both viruses appear to exist highly endemic in their respective host populations and nearly infections are clinically silent (Eberle et al., 1997; Plesker and Coulibaly, 2002). An outbreak of vesicular illness in a baboon colony, affecting the oral and genital mucosa and originally attributed to SA8, was later on determined to exist due to HVP-2 (Levin et al., 1986; Levin et al., 1988; Eberle et al., 1995). Primary SA8 infection in a group of African green monkeys was associated with transient vesicular stomatitis in young animals (Plesker and Coulibaly, 2002). To date, neither HVP-2 nor SA8 has been recognized as a human being pathogen.

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Old World Monkeys

John Chiliad. Fleagle , in Primate Accommodation and Evolution (Third Edition), 2013

Baboons

Baboons ( Papio ) (Table 6.3, Fig. half dozen.vii, vi.8) are among the largest and perhaps the best known of all cercopithecines. They were important figures in the mythology of ancient Egypt and were well known to Greek and Roman scholars. As savannah-home primates they have played an important role as models for various aspects of early homo evolution, including biogeography. Baboons are very large monkeys and are all sexually dimorphic in torso size; in many species, females are only half the size of males. Baboons have a long snout (Fig. vi.4), a long mandible, and pronounced brow ridges. Baboons are characterized by long molars and broad incisors. Their canines are very sexually dimorphic, and the long anterior lower premolars form a sharpening blade for the dagger-like canines. Their limbs are nearly equal in length, and their forearm is much longer than their humerus (Fig. half-dozen.viii); they take relatively brusk digits on their hands and feet. Compared to other cercopithecines, baboons have relatively short tails and large ischial callosities. Females take very pronounced sexual swellings during estrus.

Table six.3. Subfamily CERCOPITHECINAE, Baboons & Geladas

Common name Species Intermembral index Mass (g)
Thou F
Olive birdie Papio anubis 97 23750 13050
Yellow baboon P. cynocephalus 96 24800 11800
Hamadryas baboons P. hamadryas 95 19133 10.933
Kinda baboon P. kindae - 16032 9850
Guinea baboons P. papio - 26000 14000
Chacma birdie P. ursinus 96 26967 15380
Gelada Theropithecus gelada 100 26100 14000

FIGURE six.7. A grouping of savannah baboons (Papio anubis) in eastern Africa.

FIGURE vi.8. The skeleton of a baboon (Papio).

Baboons are found throughout the forests and savannahs of sub-Saharan Africa and the heel of the Arabian Peninsula. There are betwixt seven and 10 distinct populations of baboons, unremarkably – but not comfortably – placed in six species: Papio papio, P. anubis, P. cynocephalus, P. ursinus, P. kinda, and P. hamadryas (Frost et al., 2003). These six are all allopatric, with variable amounts of interbreeding at their boundaries, and there are several additional populations that are as distinct as the commonly recognized species. Considering of the hybridization between populations, some authors recognize a single species, P. hamadryas, for the unabridged radiation. Indeed, the more than that is known nigh baboon demography and genetics (e.g. Zinner et al., 2009), the more than obvious information technology becomes that identifying distinct species in a wide geographic radiation of allopatric populations involves very arbitrary boundaries (Jolly, 1993).

The ecology and beliefs of savannah baboons (P. papio, P. anubis, P. cynocephalus, and P. ursinus) has been the subject of many studies over the by six decades. These baboons live in woodland savannahs, grasslands, acacia scrubs, and other open areas, but also in gallery forests and some rainforest environments. They provender and travel primarily on the ground by quadrupedal walking and running, only they about e'er climb trees or rocky cliffs for sleeping and often for resting. They are extremely eclectic feeders that subsist mainly on ripe fruits, roots, and tubers, besides as on grass seeds, gums, and leaves.

Almost baboons are opportunistic faunivores and take been reported to catch and eat numerous modest mammals (hares, young gazelles, vervet monkeys) as well every bit many invertebrates. They likewise eat bird eggs.

The savannah baboons normally live in large, socially complex multi-male person troops ranging from 40 to eighty individuals, although some mountain populations of chacma baboons (Papio ursinus) are constitute in 1-male person groups. As in most One-time World monkeys, birdie females generally remain in their natal troop and males commonly emigrate to other troops. These female-bonded kin groups are mostly considered to form the basic structure of a baboon troop. In that location is usually a pronounced dominance bureaucracy among males and intense competition among the adult males for access to estrous females. This contest involves a whole repertoire of social maneuvers – not just simple concrete prowess, merely besides coalitions and babe care. Females frequently mate with several males during the course of their wheel. Birdie troops occupy large (4000 ha) home ranges and travel long distances (over v km) every mean solar day, commonly equally a single grouping.

Social arrangement and foraging patterns in hamadryas baboons (P. hamadryas) are quite unlike from those constitute among almost other savannah species. These handsome silver baboons from the barren scrublands of Ethiopia live in groups of a single adult male with 1 to iv females plus their offspring. Males guard the females in their harem jealously, and really herd them by chasing any straying females and bitter them on the cervix to keep the grouping together. They live in multilevel societies (Fig. iii.ten). Several one-male groups, probably led by related males, regularly associate to form clans. The individual harems provender separately during the day but congregate at night on rocky cliffs in troops of upward to 150 animals.

The gelada (Theropithecus gelada) is a very distinctive baboon relative from the highlands of Ethiopia (Fig. 6.ix). Theropithecus gelada is the only surviving species of a more successful and widespread radiations during the Pliocene and Pleistocene (see Chapter 16). Similar baboons, geladas are extremely sexually dimorphic in both size and appearance. Males have long, shaggy manes and pronounced facial whiskers, whereas the female person pelage is shorter. Both sexes accept striking cherry-red hourglass patches of skin on their chests, and in females these are outlined with white vesicles. The distinctive molar teeth of Theropithecus are characterized by complex enamel foldings. Male person canines are very big, even by papionin standards. The snout and mandible are relatively short and deep. The hands of geladas are characterized by a relatively long thumb compared to the other digits, an adaptation for foraging for grass blades and seeds.

FIGURE 6.9. Geladas (Theropithecus gelada) from the highlands of Ethiopia.

Geladas live in the largely treeless Ethiopian highlands, where they forage on the basis all day and sleep on rocky cliffs at night. They are the most terrestrial nonhuman primates and always move by quadrupedal walking and running. They are exclusively herbivorous, eating grass, seeds, and roots throughout the year, though they occasionally eat fruit (run across Iwamoto et al., 1996). Geladas feed past sitting upright, and plucking grass blades and seeds past hand.

Geladas live in complex, multi-level societies. The primary level of organization in gelada gild is the one-male unit of measurement comprising a reproductive leader male person, 1–12 adult females, their dependent offspring, and possibly one or more follower males. These units join to form bands, which in turn form communities, or herds. Herds can contain several hundred individuals, but are generally unstable, short-term associations. Females stay together in matrilines, and unattached males converge into all-male groups. Day ranges are relatively modest for papionins (Snyder-Mackler et al., 2012).

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Reproduction and Breeding of Nonhuman Primates

Suzette Tardif , ... Karen Rice , in Nonhuman Primates in Biomedical Research (Second Edition), Volume 1, 2012

Baboons

Baboons breed continuously throughout the year, which is a major advantage when research protocols depend on a regular, consistent supply of pregnancies or newborn infants. The prominent perineal skin of the female birdie enables reliable and inexpensive daily visual assessment of ovarian function status and of pregnancy, which is valuable for reproductive inquiry and convenance colony management.

Female baboons in captivity by and large reach puberty betwixt iii and four years of age (equally adamant by observation of the menstrual bike). Females have a regular menstrual cycle that is physically visible by the size and appearance of skin in the perineal area, commonly called the "sexual practice skin" in nonhuman primates. The sexual practice skin swells and shrinks according to reproductive hormone levels. In an unpublished study of 32 juvenile females, cycles were read starting at 3 years of historic period, using the scoring system of Hendrickx and Kraemer (1969). The boilerplate age of wheel commencement was 3.6 years (Thousand.S. Rice, unpublished observations).

The average menstrual cycle length in baboons is 33 days, with follicular and luteal phases, simply as in humans. The correlation between sex activity peel turgescence and ovulation has been well documented (see the section "Detection of ovarian bike phase" below) so that determining the onset of the menstrual wheel in puberty, producing timed pregnancies in group-caged baboons, and identifying cycle irregularities in the perimenopausal menses are both feasible and economical.

Endometriosis develops spontaneously in baboons, as in humans. Although endometriosis is undesirable in a convenance colony considering it affects fecundity, the existence of this condition in baboons demonstrates their physiological similarity to humans and is thus a useful model for testing agents meant to inhibit endometrial growths (Hendrickx, 1967; Hendrickx and Kraemer, 1969; Pauerstein et al., 1978; Stevens, 1997; Chen et al., 1998).

Cycle reading has been used to produce timed pregnancies in baboons for years at the facility with the globe's largest captive baboon convenance program, the Southwest National Primate Inquiry Middle (SNPRC), Southwest Foundation for Biomedical Inquiry. Reading the baboon bicycle 3 times per calendar week (unremarkably Monday, Wednesday, and Friday) produced accurate predictions of conception within 2 days. Detection of pregnancy is best confirmed indirectly past lack of sex peel swelling. Therefore, it is possible to predict a pregnancy equally early on as fifteen days (if the cycle length is known and regular). The pregnancy tin can exist confirmed with ultrasound, which requires sedation but does not require transmission palpation of the uterus, which might predispose to pregnancy loss. Ultrasound confirmation of pregnancy is as well appealing since the issue is instantly visible whereas chemical confirmation from a claret or urine sample further delays the answer.

The baboon gestation period is near 6 months (Sunderland et al., 2008) and most baboons deliver at around 185 days' gestation. Pregnancy loss is near probable in the first xc days. Feasible offspring that do not need supportive care have been born every bit early as 155 days' gestation. Pregnancies may extend 2 weeks past the due engagement with no adverse events. Breech presentations are occasionally observed but successful deliveries have been achieved with manual turning of fetus.

Baboons have a single discoid placenta like to that of humans. This anatomical similarity to humans is important when measuring maternal-babe placental transfer. Shearer et al. (1995) take demonstrated that baboons, similar humans and unlike macaques, accept four IgG subclasses (IgG 1, ii, 3, and four). Maternal immunity is transferred to the fetus through IgG subclasses and so this trait is important in an animate being model used to test the efficacy of human being vaccine regimens designed to heighten placental transfer of maternal antibodies to the fetus (Ha et al., 2000a,b).

Most baboon babies are built-in at night (Sunderland et al., 2008), regardless of whether they are group or singly housed. In most cases, the placenta is consumed immediately after delivery. Baboons generally go on to lactate as long as the babe nurses. Success with surrogate mothers has been limited (K.S. Rice, personal ascertainment).

Baboons continue to cycle regularly for at least xv years and commonly well into their mid twenties. Documentation of a female birdie reaching menopause (half dozen months acyclic with no vaginal bleeding) earlier the late twenties or early thirties is rare (Chen et al., 1998; Honore and Tardif, 2009).

Male baboons reach puberty, as determined by testicular enlargement, between 5 and 6 years of age (Beehner et al., 2009). Generally, males are not selected as breeders until they are at least 6 or preferably 8 years former because to exist good breeders, males must exhibit potency to maintain social harmony.

Baboon convenance arrangements have been described by Else et al. (1986) and Ha et al. (2000a,b). Baboons brood all-time in harems, though they may as well be maintained in very large multi-male, multi-female groups with sufficient space. Optimal productivity has been found with breeding groups of a unmarried male and 10–fifteen females (K.Southward. Rice, personal ascertainment). Stable breeding groups with piddling motion in or out maintain social stability and help minimize the chance of miscarriage. A single male breeder also tends to maintain social harmony among his group members such that the best success is achieved by introducing females in small groups instead of one by one. Proficient integration is experienced by introducing a small-scale group of new females to the male and allowing them to socialize for several hours, then returning the chief grouping of female breeders to the group cage. Although establishing social rank may necessitate some concrete altercations, the male is more apt to promote integration because of the bonds established past introducing new females in this fashion.

Baboons are anticipated in their behavior, mostly at-home, and easy to handle in captivity. Since baboons tolerate weather extremes well, they can exist housed in outdoor facilities in most environments. The types of outdoor big group housing used for the SNPRC colony afford piece of cake admission to the animals and let moderately big social groups (up to 20 animals) that closely approximate a natural setting.

When a new convenance group is started, the group is allowed the first 3 months to acclimatize, after which a pregnancy rate of about eighty% is expected. Females who exercise not get reproductive tin can be moved into another group with success. Sometimes it helps to movement depression-ranking or more submissive females to groups with younger females.

Other factors to monitor are pregnancy retention, alive births, and successful mothering. A relatively common phenomenon in harem groups is for a more ascendant female to "steal" another female's infant, in which case it is difficult, if not impossible, for the mother to recall her infant. If a female person steals another female parent'due south baby, the practise has been to retrieve the infant and put the baby dorsum on the mother. If it happens over again and the baby stealer is lactating, she is allowed to go along the infant. Females are kept in breeding, and about three pregnancy losses or iii infant deaths are allowed earlier that baboon is removed from convenance. SNPRC continue infants with their mothers for a minimum of 9 months. From practice, this seems to promote the best environs for producing offspring that will have normal behavior.

The all-time guide to population management in baboons may be medium-term supply and demand. Evaluation of the demand for animals over a 5- to 10-year span will assistance to make up one's mind the numbers of animals needed at specific ages. Based on this scenario and on knowledge of mortality (life-table analysis) and reproduction (e.thou. animate being age at first pregnancy, prime reproductive years, stable convenance group blueprint), an optimal breeding colony size can be identified. Other factors to consider are recovery periods for surgical interventions (e.g. catheter implant for tether studies, fectectomy or caesarean section), sufficient reserve male breeders, and facility renovation plans that may affect breeding space.

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Report of Nonhuman Primate Social Behavior

Lawrence E. Williams , Irwin S. Bernstein , in Nonhuman Primates in Biomedical Research (2d Edition), Book 1, 2012

Papio

Savannah baboons live in multi-male/multi-female social groups very different from the one-male units described earlier for Papio hamadryas. Savannah baboons comprise several species that live throughout the African savannah region, including P. cynocephalus (yellow birdie), P. ursinus (chacma baboon), P. anubis (olive baboon), and P. papio (western or republic of guinea baboon). Savannah baboons have been called generalized feeders, eating everything from grasses and flowers to insects and pocket-size mammals.

Groups of savannah baboons range from xx to 100 individuals with a female-to-male ratio skewed toward more females in the group. In most species, each social group typically moves together as an integrated group and does not regularly split up into different subgroups. Females, who ordinarily remain in their natal group for their unabridged lives, form the stable social core of the group and usually have a fairly stable linear-fashion dominance hierarchy (Altmann et al., 1977).

Each of these social groups contains more than one male person, and competition for admission to estrous females occurs within the group. Males typically transfer to different groups around the historic period of puberty. Although the proximal causes of male transfer are non clearly understood, the immediate upshot is that the males inside a grouping are less related to one another than females are to each other. Male–male interactions are more often than not more aggressive than affiliative. The greeting response between males is characterized by stereotypical vocalization, facial expressions, ritual mounting, and touches. While competitive factors do influence a male's access to females, other factors, such as tenure in the grouping, alliances, and female choice, too can make up one's mind mating partners (Silk et al., 2003; Weingrill et al., 2003). Culling mating strategies among males mean that the correlation between male dominance rank and paternity is far from perfect.

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Nonhuman Primate Models of Atherosclerosis

Kathryn A. Shelton , ... Jay R. Kaplan , in Nonhuman Primates in Biomedical Inquiry (2d Edition), Volume ii, 2012

Effects of Sexual activity Hormones and Hypertension

Baboons were the first nonhuman primate in which the furnishings of estrogen on atherosclerosis were investigated ( McGill et al., 1977). However, in dissimilarity to most human and animal data, there was no effect of oral estrogen treatment on atherosclerosis in ovariectomized baboons compared to placebo. In a subsequent study, ovariectomized baboons were treated with estrogen (intramuscular β-estradiol 17-cypionate), progesterone (oral progesterone), estrogen + progesterone, or placebo (Kushwaha et al., 1991). After eighteen months of handling, the estrogen group was the only group to take a meaning change (subtract) in VLDL-C + LDL-C compared to command. The progesterone group had significantly increased VLDL-C + LDL-C cholesterol and significantly decreased HDL-C compared to the estrogen + progesterone group. The adverse changes in lipoprotein profile in the progesterone group were consistent with their finding that there was an increase in the prevalence and size of fatty streaks in the carotid arteries and the intestinal aorta compared to both the estrogen and estrogen + progesterone groups. Notably, there were no differences among the groups in coronary artery lesions, which were limited to fatty streaks.

Baboons too have been used to investigate the effect of different types of experimentally induced hypertension on atherosclerosis. McGill et al. fed male baboons an atherogenic diet (resulting in mean TPC concentrations of nigh 200   mg/dl) and compared 2 methods of induced hypertension to control animals (McGill et al., 1985). Both methods increased blood pressure by twenty–fifty   mmHg; notwithstanding, 1 method was associated with elevated plasma rennin activity (PRA) while the other was non. After thirteen months of experimental hypertension, both types of hypertension resulted in approximately twice the extent of fatty streaks in the abdominal aorta, iliac-femoral avenue, brachial artery, and coronary arteries (p <0.05) independent of plasma lipids. Potassium or PRA concentrations were besides positively associated with the charge per unit of atherogenesis in the carotid arteries across the effect of blood pressure lonely.

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Animal Models in Toxicologic Research: Nonhuman Primate

Jennifer A. Chilton , ... Alys Bradley , in Haschek and Rousseaux'due south Handbook of Toxicologic Pathology (4th Edition), 2022

two.4 The Baboon (Papio sp.)

Several species of birdie are commonly utilized in general research associated with reproductive biology, evolutionary biology, and ecology ( Bauer, 2015; Fleagle, 2013; Jolly, 2001; Rogers et al., 2019). Upwards to the mid-1960s, use of baboons as laboratory subjects was relatively low in the U.s.a., with most successful colonies existing in the Soviet Union (Johnsen et al., 2012). Largely due to National Constitute of Health (NIH) support, convict convenance programs in the Us began to grow in the 1970s. Today the birdie has gained in popularity and reached a loftier level of utility. The genus Papio originates from the plains and savannas of sub-Saharan Africa and the Arabian Peninsula. Although hybridization between species under natural atmospheric condition can blur the distinction between them, at that place are currently five species commonly recognized including the Guinea baboon (Papio papio), the Olive baboon (Papio anubis), the Yellowish baboon (Papio cynocephalus), the Chacma birdie (Papio ursinus), and the Hamadryas baboon (Papio hamadryas). A sixth species, the Kinda birdie (Papio kindae), is recognized and noted to hybridize with Chacma baboons in Republic of zambia (Jolly et al., 2011). Each of these species has distinguishing features, primarily hair coat colour and trunk size, merely as well shares features of the genus including a long sloping hairless muzzle and medium-short tails. There are sexual dimorphisms among baboons including differences in body size (e.g., males are larger than females), dentition (e.g., males having larger canine teeth), and ischial callosities (due east.g., males having fused ischial callosities below the anus and females having dissever ischial callosities) (Fleagle, 2013; Groves and Wolfe-Coote, 2005; Magden et al., 2015).

Female person baboons reach puberty at approximately 3–4 years of historic period, cycle continuously throughout the year, and are able to reproduce in any flavour. Changes in turgor and color of the female perineal skin (sexual swelling of the sexual practice skin) point changes in hormonal levels, onset of the periovulatory menses, and reproductive receptivity to the male person (Bauer, 2015; Higmam et al., 2009). The female person baboon has an approximately 33-solar day estrus wheel. The rise in urinary oxytocin content during the periovulatory period may initiate or maintain intersexual relationships with the consort males during acme receptivity (Moscovice and Ziegler, 2012). Gestation is approximately 6 months for baboons and the infant is usually born at dark. Female baboons generally arroyo menopause in their late 20s or early 30s, as divers by six months without vaginal bleeding or evidence of cycling (Amboseli Baboon Enquiry Project, https://amboselibaboons.nd.edu).

Male baboons attain puberty at approximately 5–vi years of age, just successful breeders are commonly over half-dozen years of historic period when they are able to maintain control of the harem (Tardif et al., 2012). In general, baboons may reach an age of over 40 years in captivity. For additional data on the baboon, access The Animal Diversity Web (https://animaldiversity.org).

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Diabetes and Obesity Inquiry using Nonhuman Primates

Janice D. Wagner , ... H. James HarwoodJr., in Nonhuman Primates in Biomedical Inquiry (Second Edition), Volume ii, 2012

Baboons (Papio sp.)

The birdie has been used for many years in studies of CVD at the Southwest National Primate Enquiry Center, and more recently for obesity and diabetes research. An initial report of T2DM was described by Stokes (1986) with clinical and pathologic signs (e.g., islet amyloidosis) similar to macaques and humans.

The baboon has been characterized as a model to study the genetics of obesity. Many obesity-related phenotypes have been collected in the pedigreed birdie colony (over 2000 animals) at Southwest National Primate Research Center; genotyping efforts are ongoing (Comuzzie et al., 2003).

Body weight and other obesity-related phenotypes had substantial variation in this colony. With increasing trunk weight, increased body fat, waist circumference, and leptin concentrations were noted. Torso composition analyses, adamant by bioimpedance, showed that when female person baboons accomplish twenty   kg (mean adult weight nineteen   kg) and males achieve 38   kg (mean developed weight 31   kg) they have xx% body fatty. Cai and coworkers (2004) found that many glycemic and obesity measures (including insulin, glucose, HOMA, C-peptide, adiponectin, and body weight) were significantly heritable. Additional studies (Tejero et al., 2008) confirmed a genetic contribution to the variation of adiponectin protein levels in claret and the presence of common genes influencing adiponectin levels, triglycerides, and body mass.

Recent studies take demonstrated that baboons fed a high-saccharide, loftier-fatty diet proceeds adiposity and develop features of the cardiometabolic syndrome (Higgins et al., 2010), suggesting that they may represent a clinically relevant animal model in which to study the etiology of obesity. In these studies, eight-week exposure to a nutrition enriched with monosaccharides and saturated fat acids resulted in a significant increase in fat mass (assessed by DEXA), plasma triglycerides, HbA1c, and leptin and a significant decrease in adiponectin concentrations relative to command animals fed a low-fat, low-carbohydrate diet (Higgins et al., 2010).

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